Introduction.

Copiapoa is possibly a 'Cinderella' genus because relatively little work has been done in sorting out the problems of synonymity. In 1975 a study group was formed under the auspices of the Cactus and Succulent Society of South Australia, Inc. We wanted to teach ourselves something about the similarities between the written descriptions and our plants, and also about the plants themselves. We were soon extremely confused, but no one in the English speaking countries could apparently help us. We were also at a disadvantage in that most of our plants were from seed and immature plants at that. However that did not deter us, and for the first year we were very keen, especially in tracking down the lesser known species. Despite loss of members during the study period, much useful information was accumulated. This is not a botanical treatise, but rather a report on information about Copiapoas, with comments on various aspects as I see them.

There are some very beautiful forms of Copiapoa, some of which are easy to grow and flower at an early age. No one, as far as I know, has done any field studies to try to get order out of chaos as has Rausch with the Lobivia/Echinopsis complex. I realise that it will take years before Rausch's thoughts will become generally accepted, but they appear so logical and based on such a wide knowledge that they can only be argued against in a fragmentary way. I wonder if Copiapoa could be looked at in the same way by Karel Knize. Knize has brought us many new species of Copiapoa, as has Ritter, but one wonders whether the commercial interest in plants and seed means more names and more confusion.

Geographical considerations.

Copiapoas are found in Chile between Tocopilla in the north and Frai Jorge in the south, spanning the provinces of Antofagasta and Atacama and Coquimbo, but only in the narrow coastal regions of this narrow country .

Natural climatic conditions in this area produce a barren landscape where cacti are the predominant natural vegetation. The arid nature of this coastal land is a result of the combined effects of the high, unbroken backbone of the Andes; the cold Humboldt current; and the very stable high pressure belt centred over the south-eastern Pacific. The natural airflow around the Pacific anti­cyclones produces warm, dry winds which flow northerly, more or less parallel to the coast, and so bring no rain to the lands over which they pass. Therefore we have a succession of bright, sunny, cloudless days on the western slopes of the Andes throughout the year .

The cold Humboldt current, which flows northwards off the full length of the coasts of Chile and Peru, also strongly influences the climate. The coldest water is often found nearest to the coast and can be 5°C cooler than one would expect for the latitude. During the day the air over the sea is relatively cool compared with that over the land, so that it flows onshore. This effect can be so pronounced, especially in summer that winds can reach gale force in the afternoons. 

It is this gradual build up of onshore moisture-laden winds that brings the famous fogs, which occur predominantly in the mornings and are known as Camanchaca to the local people. They are generally at their thickest from June to September, and in the regions where they are wettest and most persistent, they will support lush, semi-tropical vegetation. Where the fogs are less persistent, only cacti and Tillandsias will grow, mainly the latter. If the entire coastline were a gradually sloping beach, there would, no doubt, be some uniformity in the distribution and persistence of these fogs, but as Knize tells us, it is a very inhospitable coastline with very few broad expanses of beach. Mainly it is a succession of cliffs, inlets, bays and headlands. Therefore, there would be many areas with their own little 'micro-climates'. 

Darwin's Voyage.

You will now have read about the basic geography of the area and looked at the map to see what area we are concentrating on. When I read Charles Darwin's book 'Voyage of the Beagle', I felt I was with him, and I am sure that the following extracts will give you that feeling too. Remember we are moving north as he travels from Valparaiso to Coquimbo and Copiapo. Some of the places referred to are shown on Maps 6 and 7.

Excerpts from 'Voyage of the Beagle', Chapter XVI. Northern Chile and Peru. April 28th to June 8th, 1835.

• April 28th . . . We joined the main road to Coquimbo. At night there was a very light shower of rain: this was the first drop that had fallen since the heavy rain of September 11th and 12th.

•  . . The few trees and shrubs which are common in Chile decreased rapidly in numbers, and were replaced by a tall plant, something like a yucca in appearance. The surface of the country, on a small scale, was singularly broken and irregular; abrupt little peaks of rock rising out of small plains or basins.

• . . . The country became more and more barren. In the valleys there was scarcely sufficient water for any irrigation; and the intermediate land was quite bare, not supporting even goats.

• ... Yerba Buena to Carizal ... we crossed a mountainous, rocky desert, and afterwards a long, deep, sandy plain, strewed with broken sea-shells. There was very little water and that little saline: the whole country , from the coast to the Cordillera, is an uninhabited desert..

• ... Carizal to Sauce ... We crossed some mountains to Freyrina, in the valley of Guasco (Huasco). During each day's ride further northward, the vegetation became more and more scanty; even the great chandelier-like cactus was replaced by a different and smaller species. During the winter months, both in northern Chile and in Peru, a uniform bank of cloud hangs, at no great height, over the Pacific.

•  ... The valleys of Guasco (Huasco) and Copiapó may both be considered as long narrow islands, separated from the rest of Chile by deserts of rock instead of salt water. Northwards of these, there is one other very miserable valley, called Paposo . . . and then there extends the real valley of the Atacama- a barrier far worse than the most turbulent ocean.

The genus Copiapoa.

This was erected by Britton and Rose to cover those plants which had previously been included in Echinocactus Link & Otto 1827. They come primarily from the vicinity of Copiapó in Chile and are distinguished by wool in the crown of the plant, smooth fruit with green scales and large glossy black seeds.

When considering the geographical influences, it is interesting to note that Adelaide is in the same latitude as Valparaiso, (map I), which is some 300 km (186 miles) south of the area with which we are concerned. Adelaide is blessed with almost perfect growing conditions for a very wide range of Cactaceae. We have a few days in summer, when the temperature reaches above 40°C (104°F), but usually it ranges from 25°C (77°F) to 35°C (95°F), with blue skies and very little rain. The rain comes mainly in July and August, with a total annual rainfall of about 600 mm (24"). We complain bitterly of the cold when the temperature gets below 10°C (50°F), with 2°C (35°F) to 3°C (37°F) being the lowest we experience.

The natural sunlight here is too strong for Copiapoa, they burn easily and this is no doubt due to the low humidity we experience during our summer months. It is possible that the fogs on which Copiapoas survive in habitat enable the plants to produce that farinaceous covering, especially conspicuous in Copiapoa cinerea, I have not yet been able to reproduce conditions where the covering occurs sufficiently thickly to prevent sunburn.

If shade is provided in summer, Copiapoas are easy to grow, even through the rain in winter. So, despite coming from very arid areas, they are very accommodating, especially as seedlings, unlike other cacti from the harsh climes of the U.S.A., such as Pediocactus.

Seed germination is good, especially from field collected seed. Seedlings grow quickly for their first two years of life, but then tend to slow down, especially C. cinerea, and growth is not so dramatic.

Plant descriptions and habitat maps.

To ease into the problems of nomenclature we will start with the northern coast of Chile, and each map will show where the particular species have been found. Numbers have been allocated to each species and placed on the maps to give an indication of their relative geographical positions. One may then consider whether similarities in their morphology have any bearing on closeness in habitat. The actual position of the number is an approximate indication of habitat locality. May I suggest that if you do have a comprehensive collection of Copiapoa plants, you sort your plants into this numerical order and find out if you can discern similarities.

There are seven maps altogether. In conjunction with the maps a list may be found at the end of the species descriptions, showing the numbers with relevant species. A few species ignore the restrictions of boundaries and appear on two maps! 

Acknowledgements

I would like to mention here that it was Karel Knize of Lima who amended my original primitive attempts to obtain approximate locations. My heartfelt thanks go to him for taking the trouble and trying to translate my English into his German. Needless to say. I had problems translating his German into my English! It is probable that Ritter has found various species in other localities not mentioned here.

My thanks also go to Louise Teare for prodding us South Australians into studying the cacti of South America and to Penny Oglesby for her beautiful drawings.